USSR

Union of Soviet Socialist Republics; until 1991 a Federal State stretching from the Baltic to the Black Sea and to the Pacific Ocean, and from the inner Asian plateau to the island groups of the Arctic Ocean (11 time-zones). The history of the USSR is closely interwoven with the history of the CPSU (Communist Party of the Soviet Union). After 1917 the Russian revolution develops through several phases: November 7, 1917, victory of the Bolsheviks under Vladimir I. Lenin in the course of the so-called October Revolution. January 1918, proclamation of the “Russian Federated Socialist Soviet Republic”. The “red terror” to fight domestic opponents. 1918-20, civil war, the “Reds” against the “Whites”, involving also millions of deaths through famine. 1924, seizure of power by Joseph Stalin after the death of Lenin. After 1929 ruthless industrialization as a burden on the peasantry in the course of the first five-year plan. After 1934, the terror regime of Stalin and the cult of personality (Stalinism). 1934 after years of international isolation, entry into the League of Nations. After the seizure of power in Germany by the National Socialists, proclamation of an anti-fascist foreign policy. Nevertheless in August 1939, signature of the Hitler-Stalin Non-aggression Pact, which makes the USSR virtually an ally of Adolf Hitler in the unleashing of the Second World War and the destruction of Poland. In 1945, the USSR is one of the victorious powers of the Second World War against Hitler Germany. Expansion into Central and Southeast Europe as well as to the Pacific. After 1946, the Cold War between the free Western countries and the Communist bloc. The USSR is the leading opponent of the US. Defeat of various democratization and liberation efforts among the Communist-allied states: DDR (1953); Hungary (1956); Czechoslovakia (1968); Poland (1970 and 1976). At its height the USSR is a highly industrialized and heavily armed state with spectacular achievements in science, particularly space exploration. At the same time, the centralized command economy with its bloated bureaucracy is able to achieve only limited welfare for the population, while enormous resources are consumed by the military-industrial complex. In addition, agriculture is chronically ill and unable to ensure the food supply of the population (requirement for extensive grain imports). By 1960 the leadership of the CPSU has hardened into a gerontocracy (rule of old persons). By its composition it is unable realistically to analyze world affairs, to say nothing of instituting reforms. The Afghan war (1979-88) plunges the country into further political and moral catastrophe. The reform efforts of Mikhail Gorbachev after 1985 (glasnost and perestroika) are a failure. With the end of Soviet Communism the Soviet Union breaks up after the failure of the putsch by old Communist forces in August 1991. In 1991, formation of the CIS (Confederation of Independent States) as a loose federation of most of the Soviet successor states.